АПТ - Фильтры для воды. Фильтрующие материалы. Фильтры для дач, коттеджей, водоподготовка, комплексная очистка воды. Академия перспективных технологий http://www.apt-f.ru/ ru АПТ - Фильтры для воды. Фильтрующие материалы. Фильтры для дач, коттеджей, водоподготовка, комплексная очистка воды. Академия перспективных технологий http://www.apt-f.ru//rss.png http://www.apt-f.ru/ 32 32 ?????????? ??????? ???? http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=8    ??????????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????. ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ????????? ??????, ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????????????? ??????? (???????????? ???????????), ??????, ????????, ????????, ??????, ???????, ????, ????, ??????? ???????, ????????????, ???????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ? ???? ???????. ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????, ?????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ? ??????? 15–20 ?????, ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????. ????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ???????????? ? ????? ? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????. 



      ?????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??????????? ?????, ??????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????????. ?????????????????? – ?? 1,5 ?3/? (3,5 ?3/?). ????? ??? ???????? – ?? ????? 25 ?? (100 ??), ? ????????? – ?? ????? 100 ?? (400 ??). ?????????? ??????? (??) – 250?1700 (500?1700). 



      ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? (1) ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? (2), ????? ?? ??????????? ???? (3), ?? ??????? (4), ??? ????????????? ??????, ????? ???? ????????? ? ??????? ????? ???????. ?????????? ?????? ????????????? ? ????????? ????? ?????? (5), ? ???? ????????? ? ???? ???????????? (11), ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??????, ????????, ???????? ? ??. ??????????? ? ??????????????? ?????. ??????? ????? ???? (12), ???? ?????????? ????????, ????? ???? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ???????????? ??????? (13). ?? ?????? ?? ??????? – ????????? ???? (7). 



      ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ? ???? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????? ????. ?????? ??? ?????????? ????? 1–2 ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????. 



      ??? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ????? ?????????????? ?? ????????? «???????» ? ????????? «??????????», ???? ???????? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ?, ???????? ????? ?????, ????????? ??????????? ?????????, ?????????? ?? ?? ???????????? ??????. ??????? ?????????? ?????? 15–20 ?????. ????? (10) ????????? ????? ???????????? ????????? ?? ???????. ????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????????? ? ????????? «???????» ?? ????????? 1–2 ??????. ???????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ???. 



      ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????? ???? ???????? (9). ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????????? ????? ??????? (8). 



      ???????? ??????, ??? ???????, ???????????? ???????????? ????? ???????????? ? ??????? ???????? ???? ? ????????? ???????? ??????, ??? ????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????. 



      ? ?????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????, ????????, ?? ????????????, ??? ???????, ??? ????? ?????????, ??? ?????, ???? ?????? ???????????, ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????, ? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????, ?????????????? ???????? ????????????? ???????????. 



      ? ????????? ????? ??????????? ? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ? ??????????????????? ?? ????????? ???? ?? 1,5 ?3/? ? ?? 3,5 ?3/?. ??????????? ? 77.01.06.369.?.40181.12.1 ?? 27 ??????? 2001 ???? ? 77.01.06.369.?.40180.12.1 ?? 27 ??????? 2001 ????. ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ? ?? ????????? ? ?????????????.



??????? ? ??????????? ????????? ???????????????.



???????? ?? ??????????? ????????? ? ???????????? 12 ???.

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        ???????? ???????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????????????  ???????? ??????????? ???????? ????? 10% ? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ????? 45 ?/??3. 
                                        ????? ?.?
                    ??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????».
 
        ??????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ? ?????????? ? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????????. ?? ???? 1 ???????????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ? ??????? ? ??????????
?????? [1].
???? 1. ??????? ? ?????????? ??????.
 
      ??? ???????? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ????????? ????????? ? ???????? ???????????? ??????????, ????????, ?????????????? ? ????. 1.
                                                                                                                               ????. 1.
????????
?????? ????????? 108, ??
?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? 108, ??.
?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??????? 108, ??.
????? ??????????
700
2,0
50-70
????????????????????? ??????
700
1,2
35-60
?????????????
?? 1000
10
25-40
???????????????????????????? ??????
600
0,9
15-25
???????? ?????????????
30-35
0,6-0,8
25-30
????????????? ?????
30-40
1,0-1,2
12-28
 
? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ( ??????? ???????? ????????? ? ??????? ?????????) ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ? ?????????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ? ?? ????????. ? ????. 2 ????????? ????????? ?????????? σ???max? ???????? ?????????? ?? ???????? (????????? ρ = 1,45 ?/??3) ? ?????? (????????? ρ = 2,5 ?/??3) ??? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? 100 ???.[2]
                                                                                                                             ????. 2.
????????? ?????
σ???max, ???.
?????????? ???????? ? ??????????
?? ????????, ????.%
?? ??????,
????. %
?? ?????? ??? ????????, ?/?.
0,01
0,02
0,04
0,05
8790
4460
2296
1863
169,3
83,6
40,5
31,9
98,2
48,5
23,5
18,5
49,0
48,0
46,1
45,1
  ? ?????? [3] ???????????? ?????? ????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ????????. ????????, ?????????, ??? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??-67 ??? ??? ?????????? ????????? [σ] = 7000 ??? ? ??????????? 300? ??? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ??????? 0,01 ???????? ?????????? ????????? 200 ???, ? ??? 0,05 ??? ?????????? 320 ???.
   ??? ???????? ???????????? ????????                                                                                                               ??????????? ????????? ? ???????, ????????? ?? ??????????, ?? ??????????, ?????????????? ???????? ? ??????????   ???????? ???????? ????? 100 ???. ????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????? ????????? ?????????? ? ??????????? ?????? – ?????? ? ????????? 1,0 ??, ?????????? 4654 ??????????. ???????????? ????????, ??? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????? ????????? 10% ????????, ??? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??? ? ??????????????? ????????????? ?? 2015 ?. ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????????.
     ?? ???? 2 ???????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????
                            ???? 2. ??????? ??????????.
??????? ?????? ?????????? ? ????? ???????? ?????????? 0,8-1,0 ???. ?????????? ????? ??????? 13,7 ???.               
      ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? ????????? ??????????? ? ??????????? ? ??????????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ???????
????????.[1]. ??? ???? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??? ????????, ????
 ???? 3. ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????.

????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????????? ???????, ???? 4.(????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????)                    

???? 4. ??????? ?? ?????????? ? ?????????? ????? ??????? (??? ??????)

        ??? ?????????? ?????? ????????????????? ?????????????. ? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?? 250 ???, ?????????????? ?? ???? 5                            
????. 5. ????????? ???????? ????????
 
                                                                          ??????????.

  1. ????? ?.?. ?????-? ?????????????? ? ???????????????? ??????-?????????? ??????????. // ?????????????? ?????????? ? ????????/ 2007. ? 7, ?. 57-61.

  2. ????? ?.?. ??????? ?.?. ???????? ???????? ? ????????????? ????????. // ??????? ??????????????/ 2007. ? 4, ?.48-52.

3.   ?????? ?.?. ????? ?.?. ?.?.????????? ? ??. ???????????? ???????????? ??? ???????? ????????. // ????? ??????????? ????????? ??. ?.?.???????? ???./ 1992. ?. 220, ?. 96-112.   

 

 

]]> Статьи "?????- ? ?????????????? ? ???????????????? ??????-?????????? ??????????" (????) http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=24  

 

 

“Micro and nanotechnology in materiology at creation of thin and microporous structures and their features, allowing to accumulate hydrogen, methane and other gases at a high pressure”

 
A.F.Chabak
 
Academy of perspective technologies
 
 
Orientation on storage of gases at a high pressure in containers leads to new approaches in the decision of this problem. According to the theory of thin shells (aspect number As equal to the attitude of thickness of an shell of a container and δ; to its radius R it is less 0,1) components tensor of membrane than pressure in walls of a containers – district both σθ; and axial both σz and radial and σR pressure – in containers system of coordinates are defined under formulas [1,2]
 
 
σθ= ΔpR/δ= Δp/As; 
σz= ΔpR/2δ=Δp/2As;
σR=0.
 
At the traditional approach at use of the same constructional materials having given value of strength and σstrength for maintenance of a constant level of pressure and σeqvivalent at the set pressure of gas in a cylinder it is necessary to keep for various cylinders identical aspect a parity. Therefore, changing thickness of an environment of a cylinder we do not reach new quality. Thus always both σstrength> σequyvalent.
As a constructional material of container are used high- strength became also the further progress in increase of durability of cylinders due to use new steel it is rather limited.
 
Qualitatively other effect can be received, using the thin shells which thickness make unites of micron and less. In this case ultimate strength can increase in 10 times in comparison with a monolithic (volume) same material. It is possible to explain such effect to that defects of structure of the material, present at its volume, during thinning of material, especially, when thinning occurs during material elongation in fine structure, defects from volume come to a surface and its structure aspires to a faultless state.
 
As an example in table1 a number of materials and their strength is presented at a stretching for a monolith and thin fiber [3].

Substance
Module of elasticity 108 Pa
Strength at a stretching of a monolith 108 Pa
Strength at a stretching of a fiber 108 Pa
Quartz melt
700
2,0
50-70
Magnesium aluminosilicate glass
700
1,2
35-60
Glass carbone
To 1000
10
25-40
Natrium calcium aluminosilicate glass
600
0,9
15-25
Polyamide aromatic
30-50
0,6-0,8
25-30
Polyvinyl spirit
30-40
1,0-1,2
12-28

 
 
In this case at preservations of value aspect numbers in a vessel can be raised pressure of gas (environment) to proportionally change of strength. As thickness of an shell in this case makes units micron also radius of such vessel will make tens-hundreds microns.
 
From this follows that for reception of new quality in durability vessels should be microspheres, capillaries, microcapsules and limiting cases will be such structures as nanotube and aerogels at the last diameter nanocapsule is in area 100 nanometer and thickness of an environment 3-5 nanom, a photo 1-3.
 
Durability of a material of shells of aerogels should be extremely close to theoretical durability of the given material. Thus transition to structures with micro and nanosize thickness of their shells gives new quality of a created material.
 
 
Photo1. Microcapillary, structure with the minimal diameter of capillaries 5 microns.
 
 
Photo2. Microspheres, diameter 60-80 microns of the thickness of an shells – 0,8-1,2 micrometer.
 
 
Photo3. Aerogel, diameter nanocapsule 100 nanometers thickness of an environment 3-5 nanometers.
 
Exclusive interest for creation of a porous microstructure the materials having high strength the characteristics and low density represent, it first of all composit carbon and polymeric materials. So, for example, poly – p- phenilenterephtalamid made on the basis of and other similar polymers of an aromatic series- aramides (armos, SVM, terlon, russar, Kevlar) have density p in 5,5 times of less density of steel, and strength characteristics 5,6-10 items above [4,5].
 
For various constructional chromnickel steel strength can reach values of the order 550 MPa, for aramid strength at a stretching reaches σ = 5500 MPa.
 
The basic characteristics of microporous structures, from the point of view of storage of hydrogen and other gases, except for aspect numbers are such parameters as σ strength – density of a material – ρ, and also thickness of an shell of microporous structure about which size is necessary for considering at comparison strength characteristics of porous structures or designe with such scale of the characteristic sizes.
 
Therefore the criterion is necessary for comparison and a choice of a constructional material as much as possible satisfying strength and to weight parameters at creation of microstructures. This criterion should be as well as aspect number dimensionless.
 
Dimensionless complex σ strength / ρ δ – is the basic characteristic at a choice of a material and creation thin micro-nanoporous structures as it considers strength and weight characteristics of a chosen or applied material thus correct carrying out of comparison strength parameters of materials σ strength should occur at identical thickness of shells δ. In case of consideration of thin strings in dimensionless complex σ strength / ρ δ instead of thickness of an shell δ thickness is considered as thickness of fibers δ.
 
 
 
In tab.2 are presented σ strength / ρ some materials, and as a dimensionless complex σ strength / ρ δ at identical thickness of an shell -10 micron (10-3 cm).
 
 
 

Material
ρ , g/cm3
σ , MPa (g/cm2 *105)
σ strength / ρ δ 108
Chromnickel steel
7,8
550 (55)
7,05
Polyamide
1,4
80 (8)
5,71
Armos
1,45
5500 (550)
379,3
SVM
1,45
4200 (420)
293,7
Tenon
1,45
3100 (310)
213,8
Quartz
2,5
>7500
>300

 
 
Apparently from table 2 best of the presented materials are armos, quartz and the SVM.
 
Aerogel is very light material. As an initial material at the first stage of creation of porogolc woro pluminoeilicate, aerogels on the basis of quartz pass a sunlight, but strongly absorb thermal radiation. Then aerogels have learned to receive from a wide spectrum of materials, polymers, composite materials, oxide aluminum and others.
 
Thus aerogels and composite materials on their basis began to possess high durability, record-breaking low density, are capable to maintain temperatures up to 1400 degreess of Celsius and show a number of unique properties: hardness, a transparency, thermal stability, extremely low heat conductivity (0.003 W/ (m*K)) and others demanded for modern materials of property.
 
The density of aerogels is varying in a range 1-150 kg/m3, volume of cavities of aerogel is in a range of 90-99,8%, the size of pore – up to 100 nanometers. Thickness of shells of the order 3-5 nanometers. Volume of an shells can make only 0,3-0,5 % from volume of aerogel. Now aerogels use in medicine, as absorbent, in construction, for manufacturing heat-insulating materials and can replace windowpanes.
 
Carbon aerogels consist from nanoparticle, covalently connected with each other. They are electroconductive and also can be used as electrodes in condenser. Due to very big area of an internal surface (up to 800m2/gram) carbon aerogels have found application in manufacture of super condensers (ionnstor) in capacity in thousand farads. Now parameters in 104 F/gram and 77 F/cm3 are reached. Carbon aerogels reflect only 0,3% of radiation in a range of lengths of waves from 0,25 up to 14,3 micrometer.
 
 
Materials with such properties find wide application in various directions of technological development of a society. Their application in creation of pure technologies to which concern the hydrogen power is especially perspective, allowing to solve an original cause of ecological pollution of the Nature, instead of to struggle with consequences.
 
Using properties of aerogels it is possible to create various accumulators of hydrogen with use specified above properties at a choice of the activator of filling of aerogel hydrogen, heating by an electric current – carbon aerogels or influencing the certain spectrum radiation.
 
Application of microspheres and aerogels for accumulation of hydrogen allows to use only the mechanism diffusion fillings and extraction of hydrogen.
 
At creation of pressure of hydrogen 100 MPa, for example, in aerogel from glass, the density of hydrogen will be equal 50g/l, the density of glass – 2500 g/l. Accepting volume of cavities of equal 99%, we receive the weight maintenance of hydrogen in aerogel equal 50*99/(50*99+2500*1)=4950/7450=0,66, i.e. 66%, and the attitude of weight of hydrogen to a matrix of aerogel from glass (quartz) equal 1,98 (198%) [9].
 
The high maintenance of hydrogen and other gases can be reached, using capillaries. In this case, using capillaries with a thin environment it is possible to create structure which is filled not due to diffusion of hydrogen, and by direct filling with gas of a high pressure.
 
As the technology drawing capillaries provides preservation of similarity of capillaries, i.e. preservation of the attitude of thickness of an environment to diameter of capillaries strength characteristics of initial capillaries with the greater diameter and the extended capillary with small diameter should be identical.
 
Thus capillaries with small diameter can raise the strength characteristics due to thinning shells and decrease in the maintenance of defects of structure in it. On a photo.4 matrixes from polycapillary structures with diameter of the capillaries making a matrix are presented, equal 100 microns and the extended part on which end capillaries have diameter 5 microns. The second end of capillary structure is tightly made.
 
Connecting the thin extended part of a matrix of microcapillaries with a metal capillary, for example, with capillaries which now are used in work with hydrogen at 3000 ati and corresponding tiny shutoff armature on these metal capillaries, we create the accumulator of hydrogen with the high maintenance of hydrogen and an opportunity of its fast refueling and extraction. On a photo.5 polycapillary matrixes are presented.
 
 
Photo4. A matrix from polycapillaries in diameter of capillaries 100 micron on the end of a narrowed part of a matrix diameter of capillaries 5 microns.
 
 
 
Photo5. Various matrixes from polycapillaries and accumulators on their basis.
 
In the foreground polycapillary matrixes in diameter of 7,5 mm for carrying out of experimental works on filling with their hydrogen are shown, two matrixes on special technology are connected to metal capillaries which join to shutoff armature forming the accumulator of hydrogen. On the second plan the polycapillary matrix in diameter of 50 mm and two cut off narrowed parts of such matrix is presented in a cut.
 
The manufacturing techniques of polycapillary matrixes allow will provide narrowing greater matrixes down to shares of millimeter that provides their connection with a metal capillary of capillary from any high-strength material.
 
Thus on the basis of micro- and nanostructure it is possible to create high-strength, easy, explosion-proof accumulators of gases which can be used first of all for safe storage and transportation of hydrogen and methane.
 
                                                  The literature
 
  1. Chabak A.F. Ulyanov A.I. Problem of storage and usage of hydrogen. //The mechanical engineering Bulletin. 2007. ?4, p.48-52.
  2. Ryazandev E.P. Chabak A.F. Ulyanov A.I. Production, storage and usage hydrogen at the atomic power stations. //The Atomic energy. 2006. v. 101. p.420-426.
  3. Akuntez A.A. Basov N.G. Merkulev Y.A. etc. Ultrastrong micro balloons for hydrogen storage. //Works of Physical institute of P.N. Lebedev of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 1992. v. 220. p.96-112.
  4. Chabak A.F. Accumulator of hydrogen on the basis of microporous structures. //The Science and technologies in the industry. 2005. ?2. p.12-16.
  5. Chabak A.F. Creation of accumulators with the high concentration of hydrogen and its mobile giving to fuel elements. //Alternative power and ecology. 2006. ?4. p.11-14.
  6. The patent of the Russian Federation ?2146662.
  7. The patent of the Russian Federation ?2161143.
  8. The patent of the Russian Federation ?2228903.
  9. The patent application ?2007120377
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]]> Статьи International Forum «Hydrogen Technologies for Energy Production» http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=36  

 

          International Forum
              «Hydrogen Technologies for Energy Production»
 
                             
                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                                                  

                                                     6 - 10 February 2006, Moscow                                                                                                

                                                                                                       
                                       
 
 

                                                         

  Developing Hydrogen Accumulators with High Capacity and
                               Instant Supplying it to Fuel Cells.
                       
                            A.F.Chabak.
 
Hydrogen energy is of great interest at present mostly from the part of automobile and space/aircraft industry as well as atomic and chemical industries, vehicle, water and railway transport, manufacturers of portable power supply sources (for cellular telephones, computers and domestic machines), etc.
Transport industry spends about half the world oil output. It is transport industry that is primarily beginning implementing hydrogen as fuel which, above all, makes it possible to solve the problems of environmental protection, first of all, in cities and industrial areas.
According to the requirements put forward by the USA Department of Energy, in order to justify replacing traditional kinds of fuels with hydrogen the accumulating capacity of hydrogen tanks should be at least 6.5% of the accumulating substance mass. Hydrogen has high specific energy capacity per unit of mass equal to 120.7 GJ/t which is much higher than that of any organic fuel.

The existing methods of accumulating hydrogen can provide the specific gravimetric capacity up to 10% (while storing pressurized gaseous hydrogen). Further possibility to increase the pressure is limited and the method itself does not provide the desired safety against likely blasts. Hydrogen can also be stored in liquid form at the temperature of –2530C but in order to get hydrogen cooled down to that temperature it would take about one third of the energy contained in it and in addition around 3-5% of hydrogen stored is being lost daily because of evaporation. All other methods of accumulating hydrogen (using intermetalloids, fullerens, nanotubes, adsorption in char coil, etc.) can provide the gravimetric capacity not exceeding 10% of the total tank mass (normally about 4.5%). Fig.1 shows the dependence of hydrogen density

from the pressure at t he temperature of 180? [1].

 

 

      The density of hydrogen under pressure of above 200 MPa exceeds the density (70 g/l) of liquid hydrogen at ?= 20.4 ? and ? = 0.1 MPa, and under the pressure above 300 MPa it exceeds the density (88 g/l) of solid hydrogen at ?= 14 ? and ? = 0.1 MPa.
Hydrogen accumulators should provide not only high specific capacity but also a possibility of quick charging them with hydrogen and releasing hydrogen from them with a rate sufficient to run engines of internal combustion or electrochemical generators based on fuel cells.
The most suitable way of meeting those requirements is using accumulators of gaseous hydrogen under high pressure. But capacity of regular balloons of such accumulators are limited and are not sufficiently blast-proof. In some countries the maximum pressure in balloons is regulated and limited. As it can be seen in Fig.1 even the most sophisticated balloons which are now under development will contain hydrogen under pressure of 70 MPa i.e. with hydrogen density of 40 g/l.
The highest contents of hydrogen in tanks can be achieved by implementing microporous structures consisting of microspheres and capillars, but the time parameters of charging and releasing hydrogen out of such structures do not meet the requirements of said USA Department of Energy, shown in Table 1.
 
Table 1
 

Parameter
2007
2010
2015
Gravimetric contents of hydrogen, kg H2/kg
0.045
0.06
0.09
Volumetric contents of hydrogen, kg H2/l
0.036
0.045
0.081
Time to achieve full flow of hydrogen at 200C, s.
4
4
0.5
Time to fill up the accumulator, min.
10
3
2.5

 
 
That’s why in order to create hydrogen accumulator with high specific capacity to supply fuel cells with hydrogen at sufficient rate it is necessary to combine the advantages of storing hydrogen in balloons (high rate of releasing hydrogen) and of storing hydrogen in microporous structures (high specific capacity).

        Fig.2 and 3 show microspheres and capillars (the pictures are taken using optical microscope with high resolution). Fig..4 show capillaries reeled up on cylinders

 

 

 

                          Fig. 5.Schematics of vessel for storing hydrogen in a version
                                      with accumulating structure of porous material.
                                                                                                                   
      where 1 – body; 2 – accumulating structure for hydrogen; – the layer controlling the process of filling the accumulating structure with hydrogen and releasing hydrogen out of it; 4– collector for filling with hydrogen and releasing it; 3 – heater; 5 - safety valve;  6 – tube for supplying and releasing hydrogen.
                          Combination of accumulator and electrolizer.
    Fig.6 demonstrates the principal schematics of hydrogen accumulator/electrolizer [6].
    The accumulator consists of porous anode 1, made of a type 1 conducting material, proton conducting membrane 2, microporous structure filled with hydrogen 3, solid cathode 4 made of a type 1 conducting material, tube 5 for supplying hydrogen from the accumulator to the engine, tube 6 for removing oxygen from the cathode, tube 7 for supplying water to the cathode, case 8 of the accumulator, heater 9.
            Mechanisms of charging the accumulator 
      The accumulator is charged with hydrogen in the following way. The cavity containing the anode is filled up with water through tube 7, or water flows through it continuously. Water is supplied into the porous anode 1. At the boundary of the porous anode and the proton-conducting membrane 2 the following reaction of oxidizing water takes place:
                                2 H2O + 2 e-   =   O2 + 4 H+ .
   
The oxygen penetrates through the anode pores, gets into water and is removed through tube 6. Hydrogen ions (protons) move towards the cathode through the proton-conducting membrane 2 where they are reduced to hydrogen. Hydrogen does not penetrate through the solid metal cathode 4and saturates the microporous structure 3. When the microporous structure is warmed up by the heater 9 hydrogen is released from it through tube 5 and is supplied to engine or fuel cells. In order to accelarate the process of saturating the porous structure with hydrogen it should obtain proton-conductivity. The quantity of hydrogen absorbed by the microporous structure is determined according to the level of electric current and duration of charging.
       Such accumulators of hydrogen have significant advantages as compared to the accumulators which are filled with hydrogen under high pressure or using creogenic technologies. Such accumulators can be supplied by fuel stations or special manufacturing facilities. Also the accumulators can be charged by customers themselves

 

                                      Fig.6
         
       As is asid above the space craft industry also demonstrates high interest to hydrogen. Oxygen and hydrogen as fuel for rockets were offered by E.Tsiolkovski in 1903. In mid 60’s creation of oxygen/hydrogen liquid-fueled jet engines turned out to be of high importance for further development of space research for the specific impulse of such engines was approximately 30% higher as compared to the engines that used oxygen/kerosene fuel[8].
       At present the oxygen/hydrogen fuel is used in the final stages of space rockets where it is of the highest efficiency. Usually liquid hydrocarbons (or mixture with solid) fuel is used in the initial stages of rockets to go through dense layers of the atmosphere during the first minutes of flight. Because of the low density of hydrogen largy volume fuel tanks would have to be used in the first rocket stages which would result in increased mass of the rocket and higher up-front air resistance.
        The specific gravimetric hydrogen capacity of the microporous structures may exceed liquid hydrogen density. The microporous structures do not need thermoinsulation while the tanks for storing liquid hydrogen are actually gigantic thermosis, the metal walls of which are plated with thermoinsulating polymer materials.
          The microporous structures can be implemented both in liquid fueled jet engines and as solid fuel. In the previous case hydrogen is to be released out of the structure while in the latter one hydrogen is just burnt together with the microporous substance. In both cases it is possible to use structures of microspheres or capillars. It is also possible to use both versions in combination since the location of the capillars along the front of combustion provides reliable supporting the process of burning while by implementing microspheres with different materials and thicknesses of the shells and different diameters of microspheres makes it possible to control the rate of combustion. 
       Microporous structures can be filled up with hydrogen or oxidizer, e.g. with oxygen. Storing those components in microporous structures will make it possible to solve such problems as providing high specific capacity of the containers, their blast-proof ability, and high efficiency of burning in the version with solid fuel. (microspheres with hydrogen and oxygen can be located in mixture and vapillars can be located in parallel layers). 
       So, creation of hydrogen accumulators based on implementation of microporous structures (first of all microspheres and capillars) makes it possible to provide higher gravimetric and volumetric capacities and meet the time requirements for supplying hydrogen to fuel cells of electrochemical generators. Microporous structures can be used as hydrogen (or oxygen) accumulators in space crafts.
Reference
1. ?.?. Ascunets, N.G.Basov, Yu.A.Merkuliev et al.Superstrong microballoons for storing hydrogen. // Proceedings of Lebedev Physical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1992. – v. 220.p. 96-112.
2. Chabak A.F. Hydrogen Accumulators Based on Microporous Structures. “Science and Technologies in Industry”. 2005. ? 2.p. 12-16.
3. Chabak A.F. Environmentally Clean Source of Energy: Hydrogen Accumulator. “Ecology of Industry”, 2005 ?. ?12. p. 53-58.
4. Chabak A.F. Patent application ? 2004131361/06(034146) of 27.10.2004. Russia.
     Application   PCT/IL2005/001125 of 27.10.2005.                    
5. Chabak A.F.Patent ?226794   of 03.02.2005. Russia.
6. Chabak A.F. Patent application ? 2005108646/06(010296) of 29.03.2005. Russia.
7. Chabak A.F. Patent application ? 2005121466/06(024205) of 08.07.2005. Russia.
8. Space Liquid Rocket Engines (Oxygen-Hydrogen GRD
    http://colonization.narod.ru/practica/rocket/GRD/O-H.htm
             

                                   

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????????????? ????????  ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ?????????? ????, ??????? (??? ????????? ??????, ???????? ? ??? ????????), ??? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????? (?????????), ?????????? ?? ????-???? ???????? ??????????????, ?????????? ?? ???????? ????.
?????????? ?????? ? ???????? ???????? ???????? ? ???????, ????? ??????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???; ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ????? ? ????????, ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? - 0.2 ?????????. ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???. ? ?????????? ????? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????, ??????? ??? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??????????, ? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ? ??? ????????????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? (???????? ???????? ?????????) [2].
?? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??????????? ???????????, ?????????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????? ???? ????? ???????, ?.? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ? ??????? ??? ?? ???????. ?????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????.
???? ???????????? ??????????, ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?? ????????? ? ????? ? ???????? ? ?? ?????????????, ?.?. ???????? ????????????? ??????. ??? ??????????? ????????? ????? ? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????????, ? ?????????? ??????????, ??????????????? ? ???? ?? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? 0,91-2.2 ?/??3  ??? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????, ?????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ?????, ???????? ??????? 1330, ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???, ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ? ????????????? ??????, ??????????? ??????, ???????? ????? ????????? ? ????? ?????????? ???? ?????????.
 ???? ? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????, ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? (??????????? ? ???????????? ??????????, ?????????? ?? ????????? ??????????), ???????? 0,7 ?/??3.  ? ??????, ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????, ?? ????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????; ??? ????  ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ????.
???? ??? ??????????, ???????? ? ???????, ????? ? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????, ?? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????, ?.?. ????????? ????????? ?????? - ??? ???????????????? ?????? ??? ???????? 2.2 .?/??3..
? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? - ???????? ? ????, ??? ????????, ??? ???????? ????, ??????? ?????? 0.3 ??, ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ???????, ?.? ???? ? ??? ???? (???????? ?????) ? ???????? ???????, ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ????, ?? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????.
????? ???????, ??????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ????? ? ???????? ????? ????, ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? (????????) ? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????. ??????? ??????? ?.?. ???????? ????????????? ????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??????????, ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???, ??????????? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ????????? ? ??????????? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ? ???????, ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????, ?, ??????, ? ???????????????? ????????? ????? 0.91 ?/??3;  ??????? ??????? ????? ??????.
????????? ?????????? ? ???? ?????? ???????????? ? ???????? ??????????? ??? ????????? ??????????, ? ??? ????????????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ? ?????? (???, ?????? ? ?.?.), ??? ????? ?????????? ???????????.
??? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????. ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ????????? ?????????, ? ????????? ??? ?????, ???????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ? ????????? ??????. ????? ???????, ?????? ???????? ? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ? ??????????.
??? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ? ? ????????, ?.?. ???, ???????????, ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????.
??? ????????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????????? ????????????.
? ??????? ?????? 1 ???? ? ????????? 4 ?? ?????????? 650?. ?????????, ?????????? ?? ????-???? ?????????? ???. ????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??? ????????? 15 ???. ??? ????????? ???????????. ????? 15 ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????, ?????????????? ????????????.
???????????? ?????? ???? ?????????:
  • ?????????? ? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????, ?????? 0.79 ?/??3,
  • ?????????? ?? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? 0.91 ?/??3,
  • ?????????? ?? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? 1,4 ?/??3,
  • ?????????? ?? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? 2.2 ?/??3.
 ??? ?????????? ????????????? ? ????, ?.?. ????????? ?? ??????????? ??? ????????.
?????????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?????????, ?????????? ? ???????. ?????????? ????????? ??????? ? ??????? 1.
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3,5
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4,9
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?????? ??????? ??????????, ??? ?????????? (??? 3,4.) ????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????? (?????????? ?????) ?? ???? ? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ? ??? ?? ????????.
?????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?? ????????? ? ???? ???????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? (????? 300 ???????? ??? ?? ?????) ???????? ???????????? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????.
 
                                           ??????????.
 
1.                ?????? ?? ? 2071019 ??. 27.12.2006 ?. «?????? ????????? ???????? ???     ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ? ????????? ??? ??? ?????????????».
 2.       «???????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????»,  ?????? «????? ? ??????», ? 20-21. 2004?
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     ???????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ????? ? ???? ???????? ????????? ???, ?????? ??? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ?? ????????????? ?? ??? ????????? ????? 500 ???? ?³ ? ?????????? ???? ????? 200 ???? ?³. ? ????????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????. ??? ??? ????????? 75 ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? 1,4 ?????. ?? ???? ??????????? ???? ?? ?????????????? ???????????? ?? ?????? ???????, ??????????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ? ??????? ?????, ??? ? ????? ?????? ????. ??????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ???????, ?? ??????? ??? ?????????? ?? 75 ???. ???????????? ????????? ? ??????????? ??????? ? ??????????????? ?????? ? ??????????????? ? ??????? ????????? ????????, ??????? ?? ?? ?????????? ? ???????????? ?????? ??????, ?? ??? ?? ????? — ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????? ????.  
       ???????? ??????? ??? ??????????????? ?????????? ????, ????????????? ? ???????? «???????» (?.?.??????,  «??????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????», http://www.rgsg.ru/art.php?id_art=183) ??? ???????? ? ???? ????????????? ??????????? ? ?????????????? ?????????, ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ? ????????????? ? 35 ?? 55, ? ????? ? ?? 75 ??/??2, ????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???????????????, ??? ?????????? ???????? ????, ??????? ????? ? ???????????-?????????? ?????????? ? ????? ???????????. ????????? ????????? ??? (???) ???????????? ?? ????????????????????? ??????? ? ??? ???????? ??????? 6 ??/??2   ?????????? ???????????. ???????? ?? ??, ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? ? 600 ??? (? 35 ???. ?????? ??? ????????? ????? 18 000 ???. ?????? ???????? ????) ??? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ??-?? ????????????? ????? ??????????-????????? ? ????????? ??? ?? ???????? ??????????? - ??????? ???  ????????. ? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ?? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????????, ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???? (? 1,5 ???? ?????? ????????????? ????????????), ???????? ????????????? ? ???????? ??????? ????, ??? ???????? ? ????????? ????????????? ???????????. ? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ?????, ??? ???????, ????????? ?? ???????? ????????, ????????? ???????? ??????-??????????????????. ?????????? ??????????? (????????) ????????? ??????? ??????????, ??????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ??????????. ????????? ??? ????????, ????????? ????? ? ?????????. ????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????, ??????????? ??????????????????.      ??? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????.   ???????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ???????? ??????, ? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ????????????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ? ?? ??? ?????. ? ????????? ????? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ? ???????????? 75??/??2 (??? ???? ???????? ? ??????????? 200? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ?????????? 3,5 ????/?). ?????????? ??????????? ?? ????????? ????????????? ? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ??????????? ????????????? «????????» ??????????, ??? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????????? ????????????? ?? ???????? 100??/??2 ????? ????????? ????????? (? ????????????? ? ???????? ?????) ?????????????? ?????? ?? 14,8 ????/? (????? ??? ? 4 ????), ?? ??? ?????????? ????? ????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ????? (? ???? ???????????) ?????????? ????????? ?? ??????????? -650?.    ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????. ??? ??????????? 200? ????????? ?????? 14,8 ????/? ????????????? ???????? 350 ??/??2, ???????????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????.
                 

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     ??????????? ???????????, ?? ??????? ?????????? ????????????  ???????? ????????? ???????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ???????????? ??? ???????????????, ??????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????????? ????????, ???????? ????????? ??????????? ? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???????????? ???????? ?????????????,  ?????? ???????????????? ????????????.
    ????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ? ????????? 0,1 ?? ? ???????? ???????? 12,5 ???????, ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????(??) ? ??????????????? ?????????? ? ??????????. ????????? ???????????? ?? ????????? ?? 1600 ???. ??? «???????» ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ?? 1500 ?? 1 ??????. ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ? ?? ??????????. ??????????? ???????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ?? 2500 ???. ??? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????????? ???????? 2,3 ????????? ?????????? ?? ???????? 2500 ???. ????? ????????????????? ??? ???????? 1000 ???. ????????? ?? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????????, ?? ?????????????? ?????????.  
   ????? ???????, ??? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ????, ????????? ?? ?????????????? ???????????? ? ?????????????? ?????????, ??????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????????????? ????????, ??? ???? ?? ????????????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????, ? ????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ? ???? ????? ????? ??????????. ??????????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ? ????????, ??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ? ??????????? ?? ????????????? ????????? – ??????, ?????, ???????, ??????, ????? ????? ?????? ???????, ???????? ?????????? ??????? 0,1-1,0 ??. ?????????, ??? ???????? ?????????????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ?? ?????????, ????? ??? ??????, ?????, ????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ? ??. ??????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????? (300-550 ??/??2).  ? 8-10 ??? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ????? (30-50 ??/??2). ??? ???? ????????? ???? ?????????? (1,3 – 1,45 ?/??3) ??????????? ? 5 ??? ?????? ??????????? ????? (7,8 ?/??3). ?????? ????????????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????????? ???????? ?? ????????.    
 ??  ??????? ???????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ????, ???
            1 - ????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ?? ??????????;
            2 – ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ? ???????????;
            3 – ????????? ????;
            4 – ???????? ????????;
            5 – ?????? ????????;
            6 – ???? ????????? ????????
            7 – ?????????????? ????????? ??? ??????????????? ?????????? ????????????, ??? ?????????? ?????????????        ??? ????????? ????????????????? ????????????.
    ???????? ???????   ? – ? ???????????? ?? ??????????, ???
            8 – ?????????;
            9 – ???????? ????????????.  
??????? ??????????? ??????????? ? ???, ??? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????? 1 ??? ??????????????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? 7. ????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ?? 3170 ??/??2 – ? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? 320??/??2    ? ?????? ????????????? ???????????. ????????? 8 ????????? ?? ??????, ??????, ????????? – ?????????? ?? ???????????? ????????, ? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????, ?????????????, ?????????? ? ????????? ???????? ???????????? 9 ?????????, ????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????, ??? ??????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????????.
   ?????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ??????, ??????, ????????? ??????? ???????????????, ??????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????? (??? ???????????? ?????????? ? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????? ? «???????????» ??????, ??? ? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ????????????, ????? ???????????? 120 ?????????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ? ?????????? 20 000 ??????), ??? ? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ???????? ??????????.  ??? ???? ?????????? ???? ????????? ???????????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????????, ? ??????, ??????? ? ??????? ????????. ????????? ? ????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ????????, ??? ????????? ???????????????? ? ???????????? ????????????, ????????? ?????, ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????.
?????????? ???????? ????????? ???????. ? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????, ?????????????? ????? ????????????? ??????????? ? ?????????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? 6. ?? ????? ???????????? ????? ??????????, ??????????? ???????????????, ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? 320??/??2., ?????????? ??????????? ?? ???????? 1000 ? 2000 ??/??2.   ?? ??????? ???????? ???, ???????????????? ?? ?????????????? ???????????? ? ????????? 75 ??/??2 ????????????, ???????? ??? ? ????????? ?????????, ????????? ?????????? ???? 450 ?/? (28,125 ????/?), ??????????? ??? – ???????? ?? ???????? ? ???????????? –161 °? ? ??? ? ???????????? 20 °? ??? ??? ?? ????????? ? ????????????? ?????????, ????? ???????? ???????? ???? 3170 ??/??2. ????????? ??? ????????, ??? ?? ?????????????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????? 1 ?? ??????????, ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ????????, ????? ???????????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ? ???????????, ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? 6 ??/??2. ? ?????? ????????? ????????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ????????? ???????????? ???????????? 3 ???????? ???????? ??? ???????????????? ???????????? 7. ??????????? ? ???????? ???? ?????????? ? ???????????? ???????? ????????? 4 ? ????????? ???????? 5. 
 

    ????? ???????, ????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???????????? ??? ??????? ????????????? ???????????????

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    ?.?.????? ??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????»         
 ? ??????? ??? ? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ???, ??? ? ???????? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ??-???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ? ???????? ???????, ????????? ? ?????, ?? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????, ??????? ???? ??? ???????????? ??????? ?????????, ??????????? ??????? ???. ???? ?????? ?? ?????????????, ?? ??? ?????????????????? ??????? ???? ? 2030 ???? ????? ?????????? ????? 5 ?????????? ???????, ????? 67 ????. ????????? ???????.
    ? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????, ??????? ???????? ???????? ? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ? ?????????? ?????, ?????????, ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? "?????? ????????? ? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ???????" ? "?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ???????".
    ????? ? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? (World Water Development Report), ???????????? 24 ??????????? ???, ??? ?????? ??????, ?????????, ??? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????????? ????????????? ???? ? ????? ??????? ?????, ??? ??????????, ?????????, ?????, ????? ? ?????????.
    ? 60 ????????? 669 ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ????. ?? ???????? ?????? ???? (??????) ? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? 10 ????????? ?? ?? ????????????? ??????, ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ??-?? ??????? ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ???????. ? ??????? ????????, ??????? ????????? ? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ????, ???? ??? ??????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????. ? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ?? ??????? ???????, ?????, ? ???-?????, ???????? ? ? ???? ?????? ?????.
 ?????? 2005-2015 ??. ???????????? ??? ??????? «???? ??? ?????».                
?????????????? ??????? ? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????????? ????????????, ??? ? ??? ??????????? ???????? ?????. ? ???????????? «?????? ????» ?????? ????? ????????? ????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ? ?????????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????, ??????????????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ????. ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????, ??????????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ? ?????? ????????????? ?? ???????????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ????? ? ??????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ? ?????????? ???????????? ????. ??????? ??? ?????????? ???? ??????????????  ????? ???????? ? ?????????????? ? ?????????? ???????????? ? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????.  
?????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??? ? ????????????????? ?????????? ????????, ?????????????? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ?????? ? ???????????, ??? ? ????????? ????????, ?????????????? ??????????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ? ?? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? - ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????, ?????????? ????, ???? ? ?.?.
???????????? ? ??????????????? ? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ? ???????????? ? ??????????? ????????? ? ???????, ??, ??? ???? ??????????, ?????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ? ????????? ????????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ????????????? ?????????.
   ??? «????????? ????????????? ??????????» ??????????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ????? ???: ?????????????, ?????????????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????, ????????, ????????????    (???-1, ???-???????, ???-2, ???-6); ???????? ????? ?????????, ??????? ????????, ?????????????, ??????? (???-2, ???-6); ????????????? ????????? ???? (???-4 ????????, ???-7 ?????); ???????? ????????? ? ??????????? ?? ???? (???-5 ??????????????? ???????????);   ???????? ???????????? ??????, ??????????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ? ????? (???-8) ? ?????? ??????????, ? ??? ????? ? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????, ? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????????? ? ????????? ?????????????? ??????? ? ????????????? ???????? ????.

                      ??????????? ????????? – ????????????.

 

         ???-1, ?? ?????? ??????.                   ???-1. «???????»

             ???-2                                            ???-5, ????????.                          ???-5

                           

                               ????????????? ??????????? ?????????.

  

???-3, ? ?????                                                ???-4, ? ????????

                                    ??????????? ?????????.

  

???- 6. ??????? (??????, Mg(OH)2)                ???-8. ?????? ??????? ???????.

 

????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????????????, ????? ??? ????????????? ???????, ???????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????, ???????? ??????????. ?????? ????? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ????????.

   ??????? ???????, ??????????? ?????????, ????????????? ? ???????????? ??? «????????? ????????????? ??????????», ??????? ??????????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??????????: ???????? ???????? ?????, ???????????? ?????? ??? ???????????????? (?. ??????????), ????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ??, ?????????? ????????? – «??????????? ???? ??????? ????????», ??????????? ????? ???????????? «????????????» (24 ???????? ?? 50 ???. ????????? ??????) ? ???????????? ???., ??????? ?????????? ? ???????????, ????????????? ???., ????????? ???., ???? 16-21 ??????? (??????, ???????????), ????? ??????? ?????????????? ???? (?.?????), ??????? ??????? ? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ??-8 (??? «???????????? ????????», ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????? (?????) ?? ????????? ??????? (???????), ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???????????????? ??????? ?. ?????? (700 ?3/?), ??????? ??????????????? (200 ?3/?,) ???. ???????? ? ?????? (????????????, ????????????, ????????, ?????????? ????), ????? 1000 ????????.

 

?????? ??????? ???? ? ??????????????????? 1,5 ?3/?, ?????????? ???.

 

??????? ??????? ???? ? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????, ??. ???????????.

 

«??????????? ???? ???????????????», VIP – ????. ??????? ??????? ???? – 84 ?3/?????.

  

??????? ??????? ???? ?? 5 ???????? ? ???????????? ????, 420 ?3/?????.

 

??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ??????? ?. ?????? (700 ?3/?).

 

???????? ? ????????????? ???????? ??????? (???-1, ???-4) – ??? ?????.

 

 

?? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????, ????? ????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????» ???? ????????? ??????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????? IV ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ????????? ? ??????????.
 
                 ????????? «?????? ???? ????????»

 ????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????????????? ?? ??????????? ????????? ? ??????? ??????? ??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????». ??????????? ????????? «?????? ????» ??????? ??????????????? ??? ? ??????? 3 ???. ??????????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???????, ??? ?????????????? ????????, ???????? ? ???????.

  

 

????????, ??????? ????. ?????????????? ??????? ???????. ?????-???????.

???????????????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? 2 ???????? ? ??????????????????? 168 ?3/?????.

 

???? ?? ?????? (2400 ?3/?????) ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????-????  

? ?????? ?????-???? ? 2008 ?. ??????? ? ????????? ??????? ??????? ? ??????????????????? 2400 ?3/?????. ?? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????.

 

??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????» ???? ?????????? ??????? «??????? ?????-?????».

? ????????? ????? 28 ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ????: ??????-?????, ?????, ??, ???-?????? (?? ????? – ????? ????).

????? ????????, ????? ???? – ??????????? ????????? «?????? ???? ????????».

 

 

?????????? ??????? ???, ????????? ? ?.????? ?? ?????????????.

? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????????? ??? ????????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????? 180 ???? ?????????????? ???????, ????? ???????? ?????? ? ????, ????????? ? ?.????? – ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?.????? ? ?????? ?????????? ???????.  ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????. ?????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? 4?????, ?????? ?? 1,0-1,5 ? ???? ?????? ????, ????? ?????? ?? 3 ??. ????? ????????? 131 ???????. ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????. ?? ???? ???????????? 2 ???????, ?? ???? ???????? ?????? 3 ??.(??????? ????) ? ?? ???? ???? (?????? ????). 

 

 

                                              ??????????
1. ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??? ? ????????????????? ?????????? ????????, ?????????????? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ?????? ? ???????????, ??? ? ????????? ????????, ?????????????? ??????????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ? ?? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? - ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????, ?????????? ????, ???? ? ?.?.
2. ???????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ????????????? ????? ????????, ?????????????????? ???????, ????????, ??????????? ? ????? ???????? ?? ??????????????? ? ?????????..
3. ??? «???????? ????????????? ??????????» ??????????? ????? ????? ??????????? ??????????, ????????????? ? ??????????, ??????? ???????? ?? ????????? ???????? ?????? ? ?? ???????. ?????????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ?????????? ? ????????? ???????? ??????.

4. ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ? ?????????????? ????? ????????????? ? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????, ?????? ? ?????????? ??????? ????, ? ??? ??????, ????????????? ??? «????????? ????????????? ??????????», – ????????? ??????????????? ?????????, ????????? ? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????? (??????????? ?? ????????????? ????????????, ???????????? ????????????????? ?????, ??????- ? ????????????????????), ????????, ?????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ? ? ???????????? ?????????????.

 

]]> Статьи ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ???????? http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=43

II ????????????? IPHE ??????????? ? ????????

«?????????? ???????? ????????»

28 - 29 ??????? 2009

????????? ????????, ??????, ??????

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«?????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ? ???????? ??????????? ???????? 13,4 % ????. ? ???????? 51?/??3»              

                    ?.?.?????    ???????? ????????????? ??????????.

 

 

?? ?????? ? 2004 ?? 2009 ??? ? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ?? ??????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ? ???????? ??????????.

????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????????, ????? ???????? ? ???????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ???? ? ???????? ???????? ?????????, ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????. ?????????? ??.

??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????????????, ????????, ??????????, ????????????, ??????????, ? ????? ????????? ??? ?????????, ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ? ?????? ?? ????????.

????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??? ???????????? ?????. ?????????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ?. ??? ????, ???? ????????? ???????? ???????? ? ?????? ?? ????????, ??????? ?????????? ? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ?????, ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? δ ? ??????? ??????? R. ??? ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? σ ? ???????? ???????????? ???

σ = ? ? R/2δ

?? ????? ???????, ??? ??? ????? ? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?????????? ? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??????????. ???? ???????? ????? «???????????», ?????? «?? ??????? ?????????», ? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ??????????. ? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ????, ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????. ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ???????????? ????? ???? ?????????. ?? ???? 1 ? 2 ???????????? ?????????? ? ????????.

                 

 ????.1.??????????, ??????? 60-80 ???  ???? 2.????????, ???????

  ??, ??????? ????????- 0,8-1,2???     ?????????? 100??, ??????? 3-5??

 

??? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????. ? ????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????, ??????? ????? ??????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????. ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????, ??????????? ? ????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ?????????, ????????????? ?????, ?????????????????? ???????. 

       

???? 3. ????????? ??? ??????????. ???? 4. ??????????????? ????????? ?? ???????

                                                                                               ??????????.

 

? ??? ??? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????. ?????? ???????????? ??? ????????? ????? ????????? ? ??????????????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????????? ?????, ??? ??? ?????????? ????????????? ? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ??????????, ????????????? ? ?????? ?????. ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????, ??? 2-5 ????????????; ??? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????, ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? 10 ??? ? ?????? ????????.

?????? ? ??????????? ???????????? ????????, ??? ??? ??????????? ???????? ? ?????? ????? ? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ????????? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????. ??? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ?????????.

???????? ??????????????? ???????? - ?????? ?? ??????? ??????????, ???? 4, ???????? ? ???????? ????????? ?? 2-? ????? ???????. ? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????.

? ????.1 ???????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ?????????, ? ??? ?? ????????? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ???????? 100 ???.

                                                                                                                                  ????. 1.                        

?????????

?????,

      δ/R

σ???.,

    ???

?????????? ???????? ? ??????????

?? ????????,

   % ????.

?? ??????,

   % ????.

?? ?????? ? ????????, ?/??3

      0,01

8790

   169,3

98,2

49,0

     0,02

4460

 83,6

48,5

48,0

     0,04

2296

 40,5

23,5

46,1

      0,05

1863

 31,9

18,5

45,1

 δ - ??????? ???????? ?????????, R – ?????? ?????????.

         

?????? ????????, ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????, ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????, ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ? ?????. ? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????? ? ?????????? (????????) ??? ?? ??????????. ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???, ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????, ?????????????? ? ??? ??????, ??? ???????? ?????????, ????????, ????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ????????? ? ?????? ?????????, ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ? ??? ????????? ????????? ? ????????????? ?????????.

? ???????? ??????? ? ????.2 ??????????? ??? ?????????? ? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???????? ? ??????? ???????.

 

                                                                                                                               ????. 2.

 

 

           ????????

?????? ????????? 108, ??

?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? 108, ??.

?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??????? 108, ??.

????? ??????????

700

2,0

50-70

????????????????????? ??????

700

1,2

35-60

?????????????

?? 1000

10

25-40

???????????????????????????? ??????

600

0,9

15-25

???????? ?????????????

30-35

0,6-0,8

25-30

????????????? ?????

30-40

1,0-1,2

12-28

   

        ? ?????? ??????????, ????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ? ????????????? ??????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????????, ???? 5.

 

                                                                                           

    ???? 5. ??????? ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ??????? ?????????.                                 .

 

 

 ?

? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ????????????, ??? ????? ?? ???? 6.

 

 

                   

                    ???? 6. ????????? ?????????? ? ?????? ???????.

                                    

     

?? ???? ??????????? ???????? ???? ? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????????????? ??????.

??? ????? ?? ???? 7, ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????, ? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ?? ??????????? ?????????(????? ????? ????), ? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????? (?????? ?????) ? ????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ???????? ???????.

?? ???? 8 ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???? ?? ???????? ? ????????????? ?????????. ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ? ?????????? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ??????????, ?????????????? ? ????????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????? ????????????, ??? ??? ?? ??????? ????????????? ???????? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ????.. ????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ? ???????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ???????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ?? ?? ??????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ?????????. 

 

???? 7. ???? ???????? ??????????? ???????  ???? 8. ??????? ?????????? ?              ?  ????????????? ????????.           ????????????? ?????????.             

     

??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????????????? ????????, ??????? ? ???? ???????????.

??? ?????????? ??????? ????????? (?????) ???? ????? ???????????, ??? ??? ???????? ?? ???? 9.

 

             

                                   

               ???? 9. ??????????? ??????? ? ?????????? ??????.

 

         ?????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ? ???? ??????, ??? ??? ???????????? ?? ???? 10, ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ??? ? ???????, ??? ? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????.            

               

 ????. 10. ??????? ?? ?????????????? ? ????????? ?????????? 100 ???,, 

       ?? ????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? 5 ???.

    

 

????? ??????? ??????????? ? ????????????? ????????, ???????????????, ? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ? ?????????????? ?????????.

?? ???? 11 ???????????? ??????? (??? ??????? ?? ???????? ????) ??????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????.

 

                

          

      ???? 11. ????????? ??????? ?? ??????????????

               ? ???????????? ?? ?? ??????.

  

   ????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ? ???????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? 400 ???., ???? 12.

                            

         ???? 12.   ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????.

    

??????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? 165 -180 ???.

? ??????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ? ?????????? ????????? ????????? 100 ??? ? ???????? ?????? 7,5 ??? ??? ???????? ???????? 165 ??? (1650 ???) ? ????????? 66,5 ?/??3 ???? ????????:

 - ???????? ?????????? ???????? 13,4 % ????

 - ???????? ?????????? 51 ?/??3

 

 

 

]]> Статьи ????? ????????? http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=47

]]> Статьи ???????? http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=49               

     

   

 

       

]]> Статьи ??????? http://www.apt-f.ru/articles.html?id=45  
II ????????????? IPHE ??????????? ? ????????
«?????????? ???????? ????????»
28 - 29 ??????? 2009
????????? ????????, ??????, ??????
 

«?????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ? ???????? ??????????? ???????? 13,4 % ????. ? ???????? 51?/??3»
?.?.?????. ???????? ????????????? ??????????.
?? ?????? ? 2004 ?? 2009 ???? ? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ?? ??????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ? ???????? ??????????.
????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????-????, ????? ???????? ? ???????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ???? ? ???????? ???????? ?????????, ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???-???????. ?????????? ??.
??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????????????, ????????, ???????????, ????????????, ??????????, ? ????? ????????? ??? ?????????, ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ? ?????? ?? ????????.
????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??? ???????????? ?????. ?????????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ?. ??? ????, ???? ????????? ???????? ????-???? ? ?????? ?? ????????, ??????? ?????????? ? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ?????, ??????? ????-????? ??????? ???????? δ ? ??????? ??????? R. ??? ???????????? ?????-?????? ???????? ?????????? σ ? ???????? ???????????? ???
σ = ? ? R/2δ
?? ????? ???????, ??? ??? ????? ? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?????????? ? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??????????. ???? ???????? ????? «???????????», ?????? «?? ??????? ?????????», ? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ??????????. ? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ????, ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????. ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ???????????? ????? ???? ?????????. ?? ???? 1 ? 2 ???????????? ?????????? ? ????????.
  
 
???? 1. ??????????, ??????? 60-80 ???,      ???? 2. ????????, ??????? ?????????? 100 ??,
 ??????? ???????? – 0,8-1,2 ???                          ??????? ???????? 3-5??
 
??? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????. ? ????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????, ??????? ????? ??????????? ??? ???? ????-???? ?????????. ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????, ??????????? ? ????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ?????????, ???-?????????? ?????, ?????????????????? ???????.
              
???? 3. ????????? ???                                              ???? 4. ??????????????? ????????? ??
??????????                                                                                    ??????? ??????????.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
? ??? ??? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????. ?????? ???????????? ??? ????????? ????? ????????? ? ??????????????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????????? ?????, ??? ??? ?????????? ???-?????????? ? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ??????????, ????????????? ? ?????? ?????. ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????, ??? 2-5 ????????????; ??? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ????-?????, ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? 10 ??? ? ?????? ????????.
 ?????? ? ??????????? ???????????? ????????, ??? ??? ??????????? ??-?????? ? ?????? ????? ? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ????????? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ????-?????????? ???????? ?????????. ??? ??????? ??????? ?????-?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ?????????.
 ???????? ??????????????? ???????? - ?????? ?? ??????? ??????????, ???? 4, ???????? ? ???????? ????????? ?? 2-? ????? ???????. ? ??????? ???-???? ??? ??????? ? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????. 
 
 
 
 
? ????. 1 ???????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ?????????, ? ??? ?? ????????? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????-???? 100 ???.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
??????? 1
?????????
?????,
      δ/R
σ???.,
    ???
?????????? ???????? ? ??????????
?? ????????,
   % ????.
?? ??????,
   % ????.
?? ?????? ? ????????, ?/??3
      0,01
8790
   169,3
98,2
49,0
     0,02
4460
83,6
48,5
48,0
     0,04
2296
40,5
23,5
46,1
      0,05
1863
31,9
18,5
45,1
δ - ??????? ???????? ?????????
R – ?????? ?????????
 
?????? ????????, ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????, ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????, ??????? ??????? ???-??????? ??????? ?????? ? ?????. ? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????? ? ?????????? (????????) ??? ?? ????-??????. ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???, ??? ??????? ????????? ????-?????, ?????????????? ? ??? ??????, ??? ???????? ?????????, ????????, ????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ????????? ? ?????? ?????????, ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ? ??? ????????? ????-????? ? ????????????? ?????????.
? ???????? ??????? ? ????.2 ??????????? ??? ?????????? ? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???????? ? ??????? ???????.
??????? 2
????????
?????? ????????? 108, ??
?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ????????    108, ??
?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??????? 108,??
????? ??????????
700
2,0
50-70
????????????????????? ??????
700
1,2
35-60
?????????????
?? 1000
10
25-40
????????????????????-???????? ??????
600
0,9
15-25
???????? ?????????????
30-35
0,6-0,8
25-30
????????????? ?????
30-40
1,0-1,2
12-28
? ?????? ??????????, ????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ? ????????????? ??????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????????, ???? 5.
???? 5. ??????? ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ??????? ?????????
? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ????????????, ??? ????? ?? ???? 6.   
???? 6. ????????? ?????????? ? ?????? ???????
 

?? ???? ??????????? ???????? ???? ? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????????????? ??????.

 

 

 

??? ????? ?? ???? 7, ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????, ? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ?? ??????????? ?????????(????? ????? ????), ? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????? (?????? ?????) ? ????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ???????? ???????.

 

 

 

 

?? ???? 8 ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???? ?? ???????? ? ????????????? ?????????. ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ? ?????????? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ??????????, ?????????????? ? ????????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????? ????????????, ??? ??? ?? ??????? ????????????? ???????? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ????. ????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ? ???????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ???????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ?? ?? ??????????? ? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ?????????.        
 
 
 
 
???? 7. ???? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?         ???? 8. ??????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ?????????  
????????????? ????????
                                                                                   
 
??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????????????? ????????, ??????? ? ???? ???????????.
??? ?????????? ??????? ????????? (?????) ???? ????? ???????????, ??? ??? ???????? ?? ???? 9.
                                                      
 
???? 9. ??????????? ??????? ? ?????????? ??????
 
?????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ? ???? ??????, ??? ??? ???????????? ?? ???? 10, ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ??? ? ???????, ??? ? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????.
                                                
???? 10. ??????? ?? ?????????????? ? ????????? ?????????? 100 ???, ?? ????? ?????????? ?????  ??????? ??????? ?????????? 5 ???
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
????? ??????? ??????????? ? ????????????? ????????, ???????????????, ? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ? ?????????????? ?????????.

?? ???? 11 ???????????? ??????? (??? ??????? ?? ???????? ????) ??????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????.

                                             
                 ???? 11. ????????? ??????? ?? ?????????????? ? ???????????? ?? ?? ??????
 
????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ? ???????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? 400 ???., ???? 12.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
       ???? 12. ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
??????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? 165 -180 ???.

? ??????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ? ?????????? ????????? ????????? 100 ??? ? ???????? ?????? 7,5 ??? ??? ???????? ???????? 165 ??? (1650 ???) ? ????????? 66,5 ?/??3 ???? ????????:

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- ???????? ?????????? ???????? 13,4 % ????
- ???????? ?????????? 51 ?/??3
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
??????? 3
 
 
???. 1. ????????????? (????????) ? ?? ?????????
???. 2. ????????????? (???????) ? ?? ?????????
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
??????
 
1.      ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ????????, ??????????? ?????????????? ???? ? ??????? ??????? ? ???????? ???????????, ????????????? ??? ?? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????.
2.      ????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ????? (? ???? ???????) ??? ?????????? ?????????? ??????.
3.      ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????/ ?????????? ????? ?/?? ????????????.
4.      ????????? ????????????, ???????????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ?????.
5.      ????????? ??????????????? ???? ?? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ? ??????????????? ????????????.
6.      ???????? ???????????? ?????? ???? ????????????? ????????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ? ????????????? ?????.
 

 

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